Top 50 Mental Models

Top 50 Mental Models

A curated collection of the best problem solving frameworks in product management and design.

A curated collection of the best problem solving frameworks in product management and design.

Each model provides a lens to enhance your structured thinking, communication, and decision-making when solving complex problems. These mental models serve as cognitive tools that simplify complexity, reveal hidden patterns, and illuminate paths forward in product development. From understanding user behavior to making strategic trade-offs, these frameworks offer practical wisdom for navigating the multifaceted challenges of creating products people love.

The observation that increased efficiency in resource use tends to increase (rather than decrease) total consumption of that resource. First noted with coal: more efficient steam engines led to more coal consumption as new uses became economical.

1. Jevons Paradox

The observation that increased efficiency in resource use tends to increase (rather than decrease) total consumption of that resource. First noted with coal: more efficient steam engines led to more coal consumption as new uses became economical. In AI today, efficiency gains will paradoxically increase total energy consumption through expanded deployment and novel applications.

William Stanley Jevons (economist who identified the pattern in coal use in 1865)

The observation that increased efficiency in resource use tends to increase (rather than decrease) total consumption of that resource. First noted with coal: more efficient steam engines led to more coal consumption as new uses became economical.

1. Jevons Paradox

The observation that increased efficiency in resource use tends to increase (rather than decrease) total consumption of that resource. First noted with coal: more efficient steam engines led to more coal consumption as new uses became economical. In AI today, efficiency gains will paradoxically increase total energy consumption through expanded deployment and novel applications.

William Stanley Jevons (economist who identified the pattern in coal use in 1865)

The observation that increased efficiency in resource use tends to increase (rather than decrease) total consumption of that resource. First noted with coal: more efficient steam engines led to more coal consumption as new uses became economical.

1. Jevons Paradox

The observation that increased efficiency in resource use tends to increase (rather than decrease) total consumption of that resource. First noted with coal: more efficient steam engines led to more coal consumption as new uses became economical. In AI today, efficiency gains will paradoxically increase total energy consumption through expanded deployment and novel applications.

William Stanley Jevons (economist who identified the pattern in coal use in 1865)

A philosophical paradox where a perfectly rational donkey, placed exactly between two identical hay piles, would starve to death because it has no reason to choose one over the other. This illustrates how too much symmetry in options can lead to decision paralysis.

2. Buridan's Ass

A philosophical paradox where a perfectly rational donkey, placed exactly between two identical hay piles, would starve to death because it has no reason to choose one over the other. This illustrates how too much symmetry in options can lead to decision paralysis.

Jean Buridan (14th-century philosopher, though the paradox is named after him rather than created by him)

A philosophical paradox where a perfectly rational donkey, placed exactly between two identical hay piles, would starve to death because it has no reason to choose one over the other. This illustrates how too much symmetry in options can lead to decision paralysis.

2. Buridan's Ass

A philosophical paradox where a perfectly rational donkey, placed exactly between two identical hay piles, would starve to death because it has no reason to choose one over the other. This illustrates how too much symmetry in options can lead to decision paralysis.

Jean Buridan (14th-century philosopher, though the paradox is named after him rather than created by him)

A philosophical paradox where a perfectly rational donkey, placed exactly between two identical hay piles, would starve to death because it has no reason to choose one over the other. This illustrates how too much symmetry in options can lead to decision paralysis.

2. Buridan's Ass

A philosophical paradox where a perfectly rational donkey, placed exactly between two identical hay piles, would starve to death because it has no reason to choose one over the other. This illustrates how too much symmetry in options can lead to decision paralysis.

Jean Buridan (14th-century philosopher, though the paradox is named after him rather than created by him)

The recognition that emptiness or absence is a critical design element, not merely the lack of something. In architecture, empty space creates function (rooms); in music, silence frames notes; in graphic design, white space creates focus.

3. Empty Space Value

The recognition that emptiness or absence is a critical design element, not merely the lack of something. In architecture, empty space creates function (rooms); in music, silence frames notes; in graphic design, white space creates focus.

Lao Tzu (ancient Chinese philosopher); Dieter Rams (modernist designer known for minimalism); John Cage (composer who explored silence)

The recognition that emptiness or absence is a critical design element, not merely the lack of something. In architecture, empty space creates function (rooms); in music, silence frames notes; in graphic design, white space creates focus.

3. Empty Space Value

The recognition that emptiness or absence is a critical design element, not merely the lack of something. In architecture, empty space creates function (rooms); in music, silence frames notes; in graphic design, white space creates focus.

Lao Tzu (ancient Chinese philosopher); Dieter Rams (modernist designer known for minimalism); John Cage (composer who explored silence)

The recognition that emptiness or absence is a critical design element, not merely the lack of something. In architecture, empty space creates function (rooms); in music, silence frames notes; in graphic design, white space creates focus.

3. Empty Space Value

The recognition that emptiness or absence is a critical design element, not merely the lack of something. In architecture, empty space creates function (rooms); in music, silence frames notes; in graphic design, white space creates focus.

Lao Tzu (ancient Chinese philosopher); Dieter Rams (modernist designer known for minimalism); John Cage (composer who explored silence)

The observation that "institutions will try to preserve the problem to which they are the solution." Organizations founded to address specific problems often resist truly solving them, as doing so would eliminate their reason for existence.

4. Shirky Principle

The observation that "institutions will try to preserve the problem to which they are the solution." Organizations founded to address specific problems often resist truly solving them, as doing so would eliminate their reason for existence.

Clay Shirky (technology writer who articulated it in 2010); similar to the economic concept of "regulatory capture"

The observation that "institutions will try to preserve the problem to which they are the solution." Organizations founded to address specific problems often resist truly solving them, as doing so would eliminate their reason for existence.

4. Shirky Principle

The observation that "institutions will try to preserve the problem to which they are the solution." Organizations founded to address specific problems often resist truly solving them, as doing so would eliminate their reason for existence.

Clay Shirky (technology writer who articulated it in 2010); similar to the economic concept of "regulatory capture"

The observation that "institutions will try to preserve the problem to which they are the solution." Organizations founded to address specific problems often resist truly solving them, as doing so would eliminate their reason for existence.

4. Shirky Principle

The observation that "institutions will try to preserve the problem to which they are the solution." Organizations founded to address specific problems often resist truly solving them, as doing so would eliminate their reason for existence.

Clay Shirky (technology writer who articulated it in 2010); similar to the economic concept of "regulatory capture"

A framework for managing unsolvable problems – ongoing dilemmas where both poles have value and need balancing rather than choosing one side. Unlike problems with solutions, polarities (quality vs. speed, individual vs. team) require managing both poles simultaneously.

5. Polarity Mapping

A framework for managing unsolvable problems – ongoing dilemmas where both poles have value and need balancing rather than choosing one side. Unlike problems with solutions, polarities (quality vs. speed, individual vs. team) require managing both poles simultaneously.

Barry Johnson (organizational theorist who developed Polarity Management in 1992)

A framework for managing unsolvable problems – ongoing dilemmas where both poles have value and need balancing rather than choosing one side. Unlike problems with solutions, polarities (quality vs. speed, individual vs. team) require managing both poles simultaneously.

5. Polarity Mapping

A framework for managing unsolvable problems – ongoing dilemmas where both poles have value and need balancing rather than choosing one side. Unlike problems with solutions, polarities (quality vs. speed, individual vs. team) require managing both poles simultaneously.

Barry Johnson (organizational theorist who developed Polarity Management in 1992)

A framework for managing unsolvable problems – ongoing dilemmas where both poles have value and need balancing rather than choosing one side. Unlike problems with solutions, polarities (quality vs. speed, individual vs. team) require managing both poles simultaneously.

5. Polarity Mapping

A framework for managing unsolvable problems – ongoing dilemmas where both poles have value and need balancing rather than choosing one side. Unlike problems with solutions, polarities (quality vs. speed, individual vs. team) require managing both poles simultaneously.

Barry Johnson (organizational theorist who developed Polarity Management in 1992)

A decision-making framework that recognizes five contexts (simple, complicated, complex, chaotic, and disorder) requiring different leadership approaches. By identifying which domain you're operating in, Cynefin guides appropriate responses.

6. Cynefin Framework

A decision-making framework that recognizes five contexts (simple, complicated, complex, chaotic, and disorder) requiring different leadership approaches. By identifying which domain you're operating in, Cynefin guides appropriate responses.

Dave Snowden (knowledge management researcher who developed it at IBM in 1999)

A decision-making framework that recognizes five contexts (simple, complicated, complex, chaotic, and disorder) requiring different leadership approaches. By identifying which domain you're operating in, Cynefin guides appropriate responses.

6. Cynefin Framework

A decision-making framework that recognizes five contexts (simple, complicated, complex, chaotic, and disorder) requiring different leadership approaches. By identifying which domain you're operating in, Cynefin guides appropriate responses.

Dave Snowden (knowledge management researcher who developed it at IBM in 1999)

A decision-making framework that recognizes five contexts (simple, complicated, complex, chaotic, and disorder) requiring different leadership approaches. By identifying which domain you're operating in, Cynefin guides appropriate responses.

6. Cynefin Framework

A decision-making framework that recognizes five contexts (simple, complicated, complex, chaotic, and disorder) requiring different leadership approaches. By identifying which domain you're operating in, Cynefin guides appropriate responses.

Dave Snowden (knowledge management researcher who developed it at IBM in 1999)

A leadership response framework for volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous (VUCA) environments. For each VUCA challenge, VUCA Prime offers a corresponding leadership approach: Vision counters volatility; Understanding counters uncertainty; Clarity counters complexity; Agility counters ambiguity.

7. VUCA Prime

A leadership response framework for volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous (VUCA) environments. For each VUCA challenge, VUCA Prime offers a corresponding leadership approach: Vision counters volatility; Understanding counters uncertainty; Clarity counters complexity; Agility counters ambiguity.

Bob Johansen (futurist at Institute for the Future who proposed it in 2007)

A leadership response framework for volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous (VUCA) environments. For each VUCA challenge, VUCA Prime offers a corresponding leadership approach: Vision counters volatility; Understanding counters uncertainty; Clarity counters complexity; Agility counters ambiguity.

7. VUCA Prime

A leadership response framework for volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous (VUCA) environments. For each VUCA challenge, VUCA Prime offers a corresponding leadership approach: Vision counters volatility; Understanding counters uncertainty; Clarity counters complexity; Agility counters ambiguity.

Bob Johansen (futurist at Institute for the Future who proposed it in 2007)

A leadership response framework for volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous (VUCA) environments. For each VUCA challenge, VUCA Prime offers a corresponding leadership approach: Vision counters volatility; Understanding counters uncertainty; Clarity counters complexity; Agility counters ambiguity.

7. VUCA Prime

A leadership response framework for volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous (VUCA) environments. For each VUCA challenge, VUCA Prime offers a corresponding leadership approach: Vision counters volatility; Understanding counters uncertainty; Clarity counters complexity; Agility counters ambiguity.

Bob Johansen (futurist at Institute for the Future who proposed it in 2007)

Organizations design systems that mirror their own communication structure. Named after programmer Melvin Conway, this principle observes that software interfaces reflect the social boundaries of the companies that create them.

8. Conway's Law

Organizations design systems that mirror their own communication structure. Named after programmer Melvin Conway, this principle observes that software interfaces reflect the social boundaries of the companies that create them.

Melvin Conway (computer programmer who observed the pattern in 1967)

Organizations design systems that mirror their own communication structure. Named after programmer Melvin Conway, this principle observes that software interfaces reflect the social boundaries of the companies that create them.

8. Conway's Law

Organizations design systems that mirror their own communication structure. Named after programmer Melvin Conway, this principle observes that software interfaces reflect the social boundaries of the companies that create them.

Melvin Conway (computer programmer who observed the pattern in 1967)

Organizations design systems that mirror their own communication structure. Named after programmer Melvin Conway, this principle observes that software interfaces reflect the social boundaries of the companies that create them.

8. Conway's Law

Organizations design systems that mirror their own communication structure. Named after programmer Melvin Conway, this principle observes that software interfaces reflect the social boundaries of the companies that create them.

Melvin Conway (computer programmer who observed the pattern in 1967)

A methodology identifying the most important limiting factor (constraint) in a system and systematically improving that constraint until it's no longer the limiting factor. The five-step process focuses on the bottleneck that governs overall system throughput.

9. Theory of Constraints

A methodology identifying the most important limiting factor (constraint) in a system and systematically improving that constraint until it's no longer the limiting factor. The five-step process focuses on the bottleneck that governs overall system throughput.

Eliyahu Goldratt (physicist who introduced it in his novel "The Goal" in 1984)

A methodology identifying the most important limiting factor (constraint) in a system and systematically improving that constraint until it's no longer the limiting factor. The five-step process focuses on the bottleneck that governs overall system throughput.

9. Theory of Constraints

A methodology identifying the most important limiting factor (constraint) in a system and systematically improving that constraint until it's no longer the limiting factor. The five-step process focuses on the bottleneck that governs overall system throughput.

Eliyahu Goldratt (physicist who introduced it in his novel "The Goal" in 1984)

A methodology identifying the most important limiting factor (constraint) in a system and systematically improving that constraint until it's no longer the limiting factor. The five-step process focuses on the bottleneck that governs overall system throughput.

9. Theory of Constraints

A methodology identifying the most important limiting factor (constraint) in a system and systematically improving that constraint until it's no longer the limiting factor. The five-step process focuses on the bottleneck that governs overall system throughput.

Eliyahu Goldratt (physicist who introduced it in his novel "The Goal" in 1984)

The principle that non-perishable things (ideas, technologies, books) can be expected to survive in proportion to their current age. If a book has been in print for 100 years, it will likely remain for another 100 years – while a new book will likely disappear quickly.

10. Lindy Effect

The principle that non-perishable things (ideas, technologies, books) can be expected to survive in proportion to their current age. If a book has been in print for 100 years, it will likely remain for another 100 years – while a new book will likely disappear quickly.

Benoit Mandelbrot (mathematician who observed the phenomenon); Nassim Taleb (popularized and named it after Lindy's delicatessen)

The principle that non-perishable things (ideas, technologies, books) can be expected to survive in proportion to their current age. If a book has been in print for 100 years, it will likely remain for another 100 years – while a new book will likely disappear quickly.

10. Lindy Effect

The principle that non-perishable things (ideas, technologies, books) can be expected to survive in proportion to their current age. If a book has been in print for 100 years, it will likely remain for another 100 years – while a new book will likely disappear quickly.

Benoit Mandelbrot (mathematician who observed the phenomenon); Nassim Taleb (popularized and named it after Lindy's delicatessen)

The principle that non-perishable things (ideas, technologies, books) can be expected to survive in proportion to their current age. If a book has been in print for 100 years, it will likely remain for another 100 years – while a new book will likely disappear quickly.

10. Lindy Effect

The principle that non-perishable things (ideas, technologies, books) can be expected to survive in proportion to their current age. If a book has been in print for 100 years, it will likely remain for another 100 years – while a new book will likely disappear quickly.

Benoit Mandelbrot (mathematician who observed the phenomenon); Nassim Taleb (popularized and named it after Lindy's delicatessen)

The philosophy that anyone should be able to stop a process when they detect a problem. Based on Toyota's manufacturing system where workers pull a cord to stop the assembly line upon noticing defects, this principle values problem identification over continued production with defects.

11. Andon Cord Principle

The philosophy that anyone should be able to stop a process when they detect a problem. Based on Toyota's manufacturing system where workers pull a cord to stop the assembly line upon noticing defects, this principle values problem identification over continued production with defects.

Taiichi Ohno & Sakichi Toyoda (Toyota Production System architects in the mid-20th century)

The philosophy that anyone should be able to stop a process when they detect a problem. Based on Toyota's manufacturing system where workers pull a cord to stop the assembly line upon noticing defects, this principle values problem identification over continued production with defects.

11. Andon Cord Principle

The philosophy that anyone should be able to stop a process when they detect a problem. Based on Toyota's manufacturing system where workers pull a cord to stop the assembly line upon noticing defects, this principle values problem identification over continued production with defects.

Taiichi Ohno & Sakichi Toyoda (Toyota Production System architects in the mid-20th century)

The philosophy that anyone should be able to stop a process when they detect a problem. Based on Toyota's manufacturing system where workers pull a cord to stop the assembly line upon noticing defects, this principle values problem identification over continued production with defects.

11. Andon Cord Principle

The philosophy that anyone should be able to stop a process when they detect a problem. Based on Toyota's manufacturing system where workers pull a cord to stop the assembly line upon noticing defects, this principle values problem identification over continued production with defects.

Taiichi Ohno & Sakichi Toyoda (Toyota Production System architects in the mid-20th century)

12. Regret Minimization Framework

A decision-making approach that evaluates choices based on which option you'll regret least when looking back from a future perspective (typically old age). Rather than focusing on immediate benefits or risks, it asks: "In X years, will I regret not having tried this?" This long-term perspective helps overcome short-term fears and prioritizes experiences or opportunities that may have lasting personal significance.

Jeff Bezos (made famous when he described using this framework to decide to start Amazon, leaving a secure Wall Street job)

12. Regret Minimization Framework

A decision-making approach that evaluates choices based on which option you'll regret least when looking back from a future perspective (typically old age). Rather than focusing on immediate benefits or risks, it asks: "In X years, will I regret not having tried this?" This long-term perspective helps overcome short-term fears and prioritizes experiences or opportunities that may have lasting personal significance.

Jeff Bezos (made famous when he described using this framework to decide to start Amazon, leaving a secure Wall Street job)

12. Regret Minimization Framework

A decision-making approach that evaluates choices based on which option you'll regret least when looking back from a future perspective (typically old age). Rather than focusing on immediate benefits or risks, it asks: "In X years, will I regret not having tried this?" This long-term perspective helps overcome short-term fears and prioritizes experiences or opportunities that may have lasting personal significance.

Jeff Bezos (made famous when he described using this framework to decide to start Amazon, leaving a secure Wall Street job)

Recognizing problems that resist complete solution due to complex interdependencies, incomplete information, and contradictory requirements. Unlike tame problems (which have clear solutions), wicked problems shape-shift when addressed. Solving one aspect reveals or creates new problems.

13. Wicked Problem Framework

Recognizing problems that resist complete solution due to complex interdependencies, incomplete information, and contradictory requirements. Unlike tame problems (which have clear solutions), wicked problems shape-shift when addressed. Solving one aspect reveals or creates new problems.

Horst Rittel & Melvin Webber (urban planners who formalized the concept in 1973)

Recognizing problems that resist complete solution due to complex interdependencies, incomplete information, and contradictory requirements. Unlike tame problems (which have clear solutions), wicked problems shape-shift when addressed. Solving one aspect reveals or creates new problems.

13. Wicked Problem Framework

Recognizing problems that resist complete solution due to complex interdependencies, incomplete information, and contradictory requirements. Unlike tame problems (which have clear solutions), wicked problems shape-shift when addressed. Solving one aspect reveals or creates new problems.

Horst Rittel & Melvin Webber (urban planners who formalized the concept in 1973)

Recognizing problems that resist complete solution due to complex interdependencies, incomplete information, and contradictory requirements. Unlike tame problems (which have clear solutions), wicked problems shape-shift when addressed. Solving one aspect reveals or creates new problems.

13. Wicked Problem Framework

Recognizing problems that resist complete solution due to complex interdependencies, incomplete information, and contradictory requirements. Unlike tame problems (which have clear solutions), wicked problems shape-shift when addressed. Solving one aspect reveals or creates new problems.

Horst Rittel & Melvin Webber (urban planners who formalized the concept in 1973)

The idea that improvement often comes through subtraction rather than addition. In product design, it suggests cutting features rather than adding them; in decision-making, it means identifying what to avoid rather than what to pursue; in writing, it emphasizes deleting unnecessary words.

14. Via Negativa Principle

The idea that improvement often comes through subtraction rather than addition. In product design, it suggests cutting features rather than adding them; in decision-making, it means identifying what to avoid rather than what to pursue; in writing, it emphasizes deleting unnecessary words.

Nassim Nicholas Taleb (popularized the concept in modern decision theory); has roots in ancient apophatic theology

The idea that improvement often comes through subtraction rather than addition. In product design, it suggests cutting features rather than adding them; in decision-making, it means identifying what to avoid rather than what to pursue; in writing, it emphasizes deleting unnecessary words.

14. Via Negativa Principle

The idea that improvement often comes through subtraction rather than addition. In product design, it suggests cutting features rather than adding them; in decision-making, it means identifying what to avoid rather than what to pursue; in writing, it emphasizes deleting unnecessary words.

Nassim Nicholas Taleb (popularized the concept in modern decision theory); has roots in ancient apophatic theology

The idea that improvement often comes through subtraction rather than addition. In product design, it suggests cutting features rather than adding them; in decision-making, it means identifying what to avoid rather than what to pursue; in writing, it emphasizes deleting unnecessary words.

14. Via Negativa Principle

The idea that improvement often comes through subtraction rather than addition. In product design, it suggests cutting features rather than adding them; in decision-making, it means identifying what to avoid rather than what to pursue; in writing, it emphasizes deleting unnecessary words.

Nassim Nicholas Taleb (popularized the concept in modern decision theory); has roots in ancient apophatic theology

A cybernetics principle stating that a control system must have at least as much variety (complexity) as the system it controls. In other words, simple solutions cannot effectively manage complex problems.

15. Law of Requisite Variety

A cybernetics principle stating that a control system must have at least as much variety (complexity) as the system it controls. In other words, simple solutions cannot effectively manage complex problems.

W. Ross Ashby (psychiatrist and cybernetics pioneer who formulated it in 1956)

A cybernetics principle stating that a control system must have at least as much variety (complexity) as the system it controls. In other words, simple solutions cannot effectively manage complex problems.

15. Law of Requisite Variety

A cybernetics principle stating that a control system must have at least as much variety (complexity) as the system it controls. In other words, simple solutions cannot effectively manage complex problems.

W. Ross Ashby (psychiatrist and cybernetics pioneer who formulated it in 1956)

A cybernetics principle stating that a control system must have at least as much variety (complexity) as the system it controls. In other words, simple solutions cannot effectively manage complex problems.

15. Law of Requisite Variety

A cybernetics principle stating that a control system must have at least as much variety (complexity) as the system it controls. In other words, simple solutions cannot effectively manage complex problems.

W. Ross Ashby (psychiatrist and cybernetics pioneer who formulated it in 1956)

The logical process of eliminating the impossible to find the truth. Based on Sherlock Holmes' method: "When you have eliminated the impossible, whatever remains, however improbable, must be the truth."

16. Holmesian Deduction

The logical process of eliminating the impossible to find the truth. Based on Sherlock Holmes' method: "When you have eliminated the impossible, whatever remains, however improbable, must be the truth."

Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (created the method through his character Sherlock Holmes, though based on the diagnostic approaches of Dr. Joseph Bell)

The logical process of eliminating the impossible to find the truth. Based on Sherlock Holmes' method: "When you have eliminated the impossible, whatever remains, however improbable, must be the truth."

16. Holmesian Deduction

The logical process of eliminating the impossible to find the truth. Based on Sherlock Holmes' method: "When you have eliminated the impossible, whatever remains, however improbable, must be the truth."

Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (created the method through his character Sherlock Holmes, though based on the diagnostic approaches of Dr. Joseph Bell)

The logical process of eliminating the impossible to find the truth. Based on Sherlock Holmes' method: "When you have eliminated the impossible, whatever remains, however improbable, must be the truth."

16. Holmesian Deduction

The logical process of eliminating the impossible to find the truth. Based on Sherlock Holmes' method: "When you have eliminated the impossible, whatever remains, however improbable, must be the truth."

Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (created the method through his character Sherlock Holmes, though based on the diagnostic approaches of Dr. Joseph Bell)

The biological phenomenon where a beneficial effect results from exposure to low doses of something that is harmful at higher doses. This "what doesn't kill you makes you stronger" principle applies beyond toxicology – systems become more resilient through controlled stress.

17. Hormesis

The biological phenomenon where a beneficial effect results from exposure to low doses of something that is harmful at higher doses. This "what doesn't kill you makes you stronger" principle applies beyond toxicology – systems become more resilient through controlled stress.

Hugo Schulz (first described the effect in 1888); Edward Calabrese (toxicologist who revived interest in the concept)

The biological phenomenon where a beneficial effect results from exposure to low doses of something that is harmful at higher doses. This "what doesn't kill you makes you stronger" principle applies beyond toxicology – systems become more resilient through controlled stress.

17. Hormesis

The biological phenomenon where a beneficial effect results from exposure to low doses of something that is harmful at higher doses. This "what doesn't kill you makes you stronger" principle applies beyond toxicology – systems become more resilient through controlled stress.

Hugo Schulz (first described the effect in 1888); Edward Calabrese (toxicologist who revived interest in the concept)

The biological phenomenon where a beneficial effect results from exposure to low doses of something that is harmful at higher doses. This "what doesn't kill you makes you stronger" principle applies beyond toxicology – systems become more resilient through controlled stress.

17. Hormesis

The biological phenomenon where a beneficial effect results from exposure to low doses of something that is harmful at higher doses. This "what doesn't kill you makes you stronger" principle applies beyond toxicology – systems become more resilient through controlled stress.

Hugo Schulz (first described the effect in 1888); Edward Calabrese (toxicologist who revived interest in the concept)

The phenomenon where users create unofficial shortcuts that diverge from designed pathways. Seen literally in worn grass paths cutting across campus lawns, and metaphorically in how users circumvent intended workflows in software.

18. Desire Path

The phenomenon where users create unofficial shortcuts that diverge from designed pathways. Seen literally in worn grass paths cutting across campus lawns, and metaphorically in how users circumvent intended workflows in software.

Landscape architects (who first observed the phenomenon in physical spaces); now applied in UX design

The phenomenon where users create unofficial shortcuts that diverge from designed pathways. Seen literally in worn grass paths cutting across campus lawns, and metaphorically in how users circumvent intended workflows in software.

18. Desire Path

The phenomenon where users create unofficial shortcuts that diverge from designed pathways. Seen literally in worn grass paths cutting across campus lawns, and metaphorically in how users circumvent intended workflows in software.

Landscape architects (who first observed the phenomenon in physical spaces); now applied in UX design

The phenomenon where users create unofficial shortcuts that diverge from designed pathways. Seen literally in worn grass paths cutting across campus lawns, and metaphorically in how users circumvent intended workflows in software.

18. Desire Path

The phenomenon where users create unofficial shortcuts that diverge from designed pathways. Seen literally in worn grass paths cutting across campus lawns, and metaphorically in how users circumvent intended workflows in software.

Landscape architects (who first observed the phenomenon in physical spaces); now applied in UX design

The insight that solutions to difficult problems often emerge during breaks from active problem-solving. Named for the common experience of having breakthroughs while on vacation, this principle highlights how stepping away from intense focus allows the subconscious mind to work on problems.

19. Vacation Principle

The insight that solutions to difficult problems often emerge during breaks from active problem-solving. Named for the common experience of having breakthroughs while on vacation, this principle highlights how stepping away from intense focus allows the subconscious mind to work on problems.

Graham Wallas (included incubation in his creative process model, 1926); John Cleese (comedian who popularized the need for "open mode" thinking)

The insight that solutions to difficult problems often emerge during breaks from active problem-solving. Named for the common experience of having breakthroughs while on vacation, this principle highlights how stepping away from intense focus allows the subconscious mind to work on problems.

19. Vacation Principle

The insight that solutions to difficult problems often emerge during breaks from active problem-solving. Named for the common experience of having breakthroughs while on vacation, this principle highlights how stepping away from intense focus allows the subconscious mind to work on problems.

Graham Wallas (included incubation in his creative process model, 1926); John Cleese (comedian who popularized the need for "open mode" thinking)

The insight that solutions to difficult problems often emerge during breaks from active problem-solving. Named for the common experience of having breakthroughs while on vacation, this principle highlights how stepping away from intense focus allows the subconscious mind to work on problems.

19. Vacation Principle

The insight that solutions to difficult problems often emerge during breaks from active problem-solving. Named for the common experience of having breakthroughs while on vacation, this principle highlights how stepping away from intense focus allows the subconscious mind to work on problems.

Graham Wallas (included incubation in his creative process model, 1926); John Cleese (comedian who popularized the need for "open mode" thinking)

Understanding how object properties suggest their uses. Affordances are possibilities for action that environments offer users. Door handles "afford" pulling; flat plates "afford" pushing. In design, clear affordances reduce cognitive load and guide intuitive use.

20. Principle of Affordance

Understanding how object properties suggest their uses. Affordances are possibilities for action that environments offer users. Door handles "afford" pulling; flat plates "afford" pushing. In design, clear affordances reduce cognitive load and guide intuitive use.

J.J. Gibson (psychologist who developed the concept in 1977); Donald Norman (expanded it for design)

Understanding how object properties suggest their uses. Affordances are possibilities for action that environments offer users. Door handles "afford" pulling; flat plates "afford" pushing. In design, clear affordances reduce cognitive load and guide intuitive use.

20. Principle of Affordance

Understanding how object properties suggest their uses. Affordances are possibilities for action that environments offer users. Door handles "afford" pulling; flat plates "afford" pushing. In design, clear affordances reduce cognitive load and guide intuitive use.

J.J. Gibson (psychologist who developed the concept in 1977); Donald Norman (expanded it for design)

Understanding how object properties suggest their uses. Affordances are possibilities for action that environments offer users. Door handles "afford" pulling; flat plates "afford" pushing. In design, clear affordances reduce cognitive load and guide intuitive use.

20. Principle of Affordance

Understanding how object properties suggest their uses. Affordances are possibilities for action that environments offer users. Door handles "afford" pulling; flat plates "afford" pushing. In design, clear affordances reduce cognitive load and guide intuitive use.

J.J. Gibson (psychologist who developed the concept in 1977); Donald Norman (expanded it for design)

The tendency for new technologies to initially replicate the forms of what they replace before evolving into their own forms. Early cars looked like "horseless carriages," early films used static theater-like staging, and early digital interfaces used file cabinet metaphors.

21. Technological Reverie

The tendency for new technologies to initially replicate the forms of what they replace before evolving into their own forms. Early cars looked like "horseless carriages," early films used static theater-like staging, and early digital interfaces used file cabinet metaphors.

Marshall McLuhan (media theorist who observed how new media initially contain old media); Henry Petroski (engineer who documented this pattern in technological evolution)

The tendency for new technologies to initially replicate the forms of what they replace before evolving into their own forms. Early cars looked like "horseless carriages," early films used static theater-like staging, and early digital interfaces used file cabinet metaphors.

21. Technological Reverie

The tendency for new technologies to initially replicate the forms of what they replace before evolving into their own forms. Early cars looked like "horseless carriages," early films used static theater-like staging, and early digital interfaces used file cabinet metaphors.

Marshall McLuhan (media theorist who observed how new media initially contain old media); Henry Petroski (engineer who documented this pattern in technological evolution)

The tendency for new technologies to initially replicate the forms of what they replace before evolving into their own forms. Early cars looked like "horseless carriages," early films used static theater-like staging, and early digital interfaces used file cabinet metaphors.

21. Technological Reverie

The tendency for new technologies to initially replicate the forms of what they replace before evolving into their own forms. Early cars looked like "horseless carriages," early films used static theater-like staging, and early digital interfaces used file cabinet metaphors.

Marshall McLuhan (media theorist who observed how new media initially contain old media); Henry Petroski (engineer who documented this pattern in technological evolution)

The principle that one should understand the reasoning behind an existing rule or system before changing or removing it. Before eliminating a feature, process, or regulation that seems unnecessary, investigate its origin and function.

22. Chesterton's Fence

The principle that one should understand the reasoning behind an existing rule or system before changing or removing it. Before eliminating a feature, process, or regulation that seems unnecessary, investigate its origin and function.

G. K. Chesterton (British writer who explained this logic in a 1929 essay)

The principle that one should understand the reasoning behind an existing rule or system before changing or removing it. Before eliminating a feature, process, or regulation that seems unnecessary, investigate its origin and function.

22. Chesterton's Fence

The principle that one should understand the reasoning behind an existing rule or system before changing or removing it. Before eliminating a feature, process, or regulation that seems unnecessary, investigate its origin and function.

G. K. Chesterton (British writer who explained this logic in a 1929 essay)

The principle that one should understand the reasoning behind an existing rule or system before changing or removing it. Before eliminating a feature, process, or regulation that seems unnecessary, investigate its origin and function.

22. Chesterton's Fence

The principle that one should understand the reasoning behind an existing rule or system before changing or removing it. Before eliminating a feature, process, or regulation that seems unnecessary, investigate its origin and function.

G. K. Chesterton (British writer who explained this logic in a 1929 essay)

The tendency to view the world through the lens of one's profession or expertise. A lawyer sees liability issues everywhere; an engineer notices structural flaws; a marketer focuses on branding. This cognitive bias creates professional blind spots while offering specialized insights.

23. Déformation Professionnelle

The tendency to view the world through the lens of one's profession or expertise. A lawyer sees liability issues everywhere; an engineer notices structural flaws; a marketer focuses on branding. This cognitive bias creates professional blind spots while offering specialized insights.

French sociologists (concept dates to early 20th century); Discussed by Bergson and Nietzsche as occupational bias

The tendency to view the world through the lens of one's profession or expertise. A lawyer sees liability issues everywhere; an engineer notices structural flaws; a marketer focuses on branding. This cognitive bias creates professional blind spots while offering specialized insights.

23. Déformation Professionnelle

The tendency to view the world through the lens of one's profession or expertise. A lawyer sees liability issues everywhere; an engineer notices structural flaws; a marketer focuses on branding. This cognitive bias creates professional blind spots while offering specialized insights.

French sociologists (concept dates to early 20th century); Discussed by Bergson and Nietzsche as occupational bias

The tendency to view the world through the lens of one's profession or expertise. A lawyer sees liability issues everywhere; an engineer notices structural flaws; a marketer focuses on branding. This cognitive bias creates professional blind spots while offering specialized insights.

23. Déformation Professionnelle

The tendency to view the world through the lens of one's profession or expertise. A lawyer sees liability issues everywhere; an engineer notices structural flaws; a marketer focuses on branding. This cognitive bias creates professional blind spots while offering specialized insights.

French sociologists (concept dates to early 20th century); Discussed by Bergson and Nietzsche as occupational bias

The principle that complex systems that work evolved from simpler systems that worked. Complex systems designed from scratch will never work – they must grow from simpler, functional systems.

24. Gall's Law

The principle that complex systems that work evolved from simpler systems that worked. Complex systems designed from scratch will never work – they must grow from simpler, functional systems.

John Gall (systems theorist who formulated it in his book "Systemantics" in 1975)

The principle that complex systems that work evolved from simpler systems that worked. Complex systems designed from scratch will never work – they must grow from simpler, functional systems.

24. Gall's Law

The principle that complex systems that work evolved from simpler systems that worked. Complex systems designed from scratch will never work – they must grow from simpler, functional systems.

John Gall (systems theorist who formulated it in his book "Systemantics" in 1975)

The principle that complex systems that work evolved from simpler systems that worked. Complex systems designed from scratch will never work – they must grow from simpler, functional systems.

24. Gall's Law

The principle that complex systems that work evolved from simpler systems that worked. Complex systems designed from scratch will never work – they must grow from simpler, functional systems.

John Gall (systems theorist who formulated it in his book "Systemantics" in 1975)

The observation that humans handle sudden traumatic events better than prolonged minor stressors. Adapted from Nassim Taleb's work, it notes that receiving 1,000 small annoyances (drips) distributed over time can be more harmful than receiving the same damage at once.

25. Toxicity of Dripping

The observation that humans handle sudden traumatic events better than prolonged minor stressors. Adapted from Nassim Taleb's work, it notes that receiving 1,000 small annoyances (drips) distributed over time can be more harmful than receiving the same damage at once.

Nassim Nicholas Taleb (risk analyst who discussed the concept in "Antifragile"); expanded by workplace psychologists

The observation that humans handle sudden traumatic events better than prolonged minor stressors. Adapted from Nassim Taleb's work, it notes that receiving 1,000 small annoyances (drips) distributed over time can be more harmful than receiving the same damage at once.

25. Toxicity of Dripping

The observation that humans handle sudden traumatic events better than prolonged minor stressors. Adapted from Nassim Taleb's work, it notes that receiving 1,000 small annoyances (drips) distributed over time can be more harmful than receiving the same damage at once.

Nassim Nicholas Taleb (risk analyst who discussed the concept in "Antifragile"); expanded by workplace psychologists

The observation that humans handle sudden traumatic events better than prolonged minor stressors. Adapted from Nassim Taleb's work, it notes that receiving 1,000 small annoyances (drips) distributed over time can be more harmful than receiving the same damage at once.

25. Toxicity of Dripping

The observation that humans handle sudden traumatic events better than prolonged minor stressors. Adapted from Nassim Taleb's work, it notes that receiving 1,000 small annoyances (drips) distributed over time can be more harmful than receiving the same damage at once.

Nassim Nicholas Taleb (risk analyst who discussed the concept in "Antifragile"); expanded by workplace psychologists

The approach of navigating complex environments through incremental decision-making based on available environmental cues rather than comprehensive maps. This applies to complex projects where complete upfront planning is impossible.

26. Wayfinding Principle

The approach of navigating complex environments through incremental decision-making based on available environmental cues rather than comprehensive maps. This applies to complex projects where complete upfront planning is impossible.

Kevin Lynch (urban planner who studied how people navigate cities in the 1960s); applied to software development by Marty Cagan

The approach of navigating complex environments through incremental decision-making based on available environmental cues rather than comprehensive maps. This applies to complex projects where complete upfront planning is impossible.

26. Wayfinding Principle

The approach of navigating complex environments through incremental decision-making based on available environmental cues rather than comprehensive maps. This applies to complex projects where complete upfront planning is impossible.

Kevin Lynch (urban planner who studied how people navigate cities in the 1960s); applied to software development by Marty Cagan

The approach of navigating complex environments through incremental decision-making based on available environmental cues rather than comprehensive maps. This applies to complex projects where complete upfront planning is impossible.

26. Wayfinding Principle

The approach of navigating complex environments through incremental decision-making based on available environmental cues rather than comprehensive maps. This applies to complex projects where complete upfront planning is impossible.

Kevin Lynch (urban planner who studied how people navigate cities in the 1960s); applied to software development by Marty Cagan

The principle that "when a measure becomes a target, it ceases to be a good measure." Once people become aware that a metric is being used to evaluate them, they optimize for that metric rather than the underlying goal it was meant to track.

27. Goodhart's Law

The principle that "when a measure becomes a target, it ceases to be a good measure." Once people become aware that a metric is being used to evaluate them, they optimize for that metric rather than the underlying goal it was meant to track.

Charles Goodhart (economist who first stated it regarding monetary policy in 1975); generalized by Marilyn Strathern

The principle that "when a measure becomes a target, it ceases to be a good measure." Once people become aware that a metric is being used to evaluate them, they optimize for that metric rather than the underlying goal it was meant to track.

27. Goodhart's Law

The principle that "when a measure becomes a target, it ceases to be a good measure." Once people become aware that a metric is being used to evaluate them, they optimize for that metric rather than the underlying goal it was meant to track.

Charles Goodhart (economist who first stated it regarding monetary policy in 1975); generalized by Marilyn Strathern

The principle that "when a measure becomes a target, it ceases to be a good measure." Once people become aware that a metric is being used to evaluate them, they optimize for that metric rather than the underlying goal it was meant to track.

27. Goodhart's Law

The principle that "when a measure becomes a target, it ceases to be a good measure." Once people become aware that a metric is being used to evaluate them, they optimize for that metric rather than the underlying goal it was meant to track.

Charles Goodhart (economist who first stated it regarding monetary policy in 1975); generalized by Marilyn Strathern

The tendency to stick with familiar solutions rather than seeking optimal ones. When faced with a problem similar to one previously solved, people instinctively apply the old solution even when better approaches exist.

28. Einstellung Effect

The tendency to stick with familiar solutions rather than seeking optimal ones. When faced with a problem similar to one previously solved, people instinctively apply the old solution even when better approaches exist.

Abraham Luchins (psychologist who demonstrated it in water jar experiments in 1942); studied in chess players by Merim Bilalić

The tendency to stick with familiar solutions rather than seeking optimal ones. When faced with a problem similar to one previously solved, people instinctively apply the old solution even when better approaches exist.

28. Einstellung Effect

The tendency to stick with familiar solutions rather than seeking optimal ones. When faced with a problem similar to one previously solved, people instinctively apply the old solution even when better approaches exist.

Abraham Luchins (psychologist who demonstrated it in water jar experiments in 1942); studied in chess players by Merim Bilalić

The tendency to stick with familiar solutions rather than seeking optimal ones. When faced with a problem similar to one previously solved, people instinctively apply the old solution even when better approaches exist.

28. Einstellung Effect

The tendency to stick with familiar solutions rather than seeking optimal ones. When faced with a problem similar to one previously solved, people instinctively apply the old solution even when better approaches exist.

Abraham Luchins (psychologist who demonstrated it in water jar experiments in 1942); studied in chess players by Merim Bilalić

The cognitive bias where people place disproportionately high value on products they partially created. Named after the furniture retailer's self-assembly model, studies show that consumers value items they built themselves more than identical pre-built items.

29. IKEA Effect

The cognitive bias where people place disproportionately high value on products they partially created. Named after the furniture retailer's self-assembly model, studies show that consumers value items they built themselves more than identical pre-built items.

Michael Norton, Daniel Mochon, & Dan Ariely (behavioral economists who documented the effect in 2012)

The cognitive bias where people place disproportionately high value on products they partially created. Named after the furniture retailer's self-assembly model, studies show that consumers value items they built themselves more than identical pre-built items.

29. IKEA Effect

The cognitive bias where people place disproportionately high value on products they partially created. Named after the furniture retailer's self-assembly model, studies show that consumers value items they built themselves more than identical pre-built items.

Michael Norton, Daniel Mochon, & Dan Ariely (behavioral economists who documented the effect in 2012)

The cognitive bias where people place disproportionately high value on products they partially created. Named after the furniture retailer's self-assembly model, studies show that consumers value items they built themselves more than identical pre-built items.

29. IKEA Effect

The cognitive bias where people place disproportionately high value on products they partially created. Named after the furniture retailer's self-assembly model, studies show that consumers value items they built themselves more than identical pre-built items.

Michael Norton, Daniel Mochon, & Dan Ariely (behavioral economists who documented the effect in 2012)

The psychological tendency to remember uncompleted tasks better than completed ones. Interrupting people during a task creates a mental tension that persists until the task is finished. Product designers leverage this by creating intentional points of closure or deliberate open loops to maintain engagement.

30. Zeigarnik Effect

The psychological tendency to remember uncompleted tasks better than completed ones. Interrupting people during a task creates a mental tension that persists until the task is finished. Product designers leverage this by creating intentional points of closure or deliberate open loops to maintain engagement.

Bluma Zeigarnik (psychologist who first identified the effect in 1927 based on observations of waiters' memory patterns)

The psychological tendency to remember uncompleted tasks better than completed ones. Interrupting people during a task creates a mental tension that persists until the task is finished. Product designers leverage this by creating intentional points of closure or deliberate open loops to maintain engagement.

30. Zeigarnik Effect

The psychological tendency to remember uncompleted tasks better than completed ones. Interrupting people during a task creates a mental tension that persists until the task is finished. Product designers leverage this by creating intentional points of closure or deliberate open loops to maintain engagement.

Bluma Zeigarnik (psychologist who first identified the effect in 1927 based on observations of waiters' memory patterns)

The psychological tendency to remember uncompleted tasks better than completed ones. Interrupting people during a task creates a mental tension that persists until the task is finished. Product designers leverage this by creating intentional points of closure or deliberate open loops to maintain engagement.

30. Zeigarnik Effect

The psychological tendency to remember uncompleted tasks better than completed ones. Interrupting people during a task creates a mental tension that persists until the task is finished. Product designers leverage this by creating intentional points of closure or deliberate open loops to maintain engagement.

Bluma Zeigarnik (psychologist who first identified the effect in 1927 based on observations of waiters' memory patterns)

The cognitive bias where items at the beginning (primacy) and end (recency) of a sequence are recalled better than middle items. In presentations, audiences remember opening and closing points most clearly; in user interfaces, first and last items in a list receive disproportionate attention.

31. Serial Position Effect

The cognitive bias where items at the beginning (primacy) and end (recency) of a sequence are recalled better than middle items. In presentations, audiences remember opening and closing points most clearly; in user interfaces, first and last items in a list receive disproportionate attention.

Hermann Ebbinghaus (psychologist who documented the effect in memory studies in the 1880s); refined through subsequent cognitive psychology research

The cognitive bias where items at the beginning (primacy) and end (recency) of a sequence are recalled better than middle items. In presentations, audiences remember opening and closing points most clearly; in user interfaces, first and last items in a list receive disproportionate attention.

31. Serial Position Effect

The cognitive bias where items at the beginning (primacy) and end (recency) of a sequence are recalled better than middle items. In presentations, audiences remember opening and closing points most clearly; in user interfaces, first and last items in a list receive disproportionate attention.

Hermann Ebbinghaus (psychologist who documented the effect in memory studies in the 1880s); refined through subsequent cognitive psychology research

The cognitive bias where items at the beginning (primacy) and end (recency) of a sequence are recalled better than middle items. In presentations, audiences remember opening and closing points most clearly; in user interfaces, first and last items in a list receive disproportionate attention.

31. Serial Position Effect

The cognitive bias where items at the beginning (primacy) and end (recency) of a sequence are recalled better than middle items. In presentations, audiences remember opening and closing points most clearly; in user interfaces, first and last items in a list receive disproportionate attention.

Hermann Ebbinghaus (psychologist who documented the effect in memory studies in the 1880s); refined through subsequent cognitive psychology research

The tendency for groups to spend disproportionate time on trivial issues while neglecting complex important matters. Named after Parkinson's observation that a committee might spend little time on approving a nuclear plant (too complex for casual opinions) but extensive time debating a bicycle shed's color.

32. Bike-Shed Effect

The tendency for groups to spend disproportionate time on trivial issues while neglecting complex important matters. Named after Parkinson's observation that a committee might spend little time on approving a nuclear plant (too complex for casual opinions) but extensive time debating a bicycle shed's color.

C. Northcote Parkinson (historian who described the phenomenon in 1957); Popularized in software development as "Parkinson's Law of Triviality"

The tendency for groups to spend disproportionate time on trivial issues while neglecting complex important matters. Named after Parkinson's observation that a committee might spend little time on approving a nuclear plant (too complex for casual opinions) but extensive time debating a bicycle shed's color.

32. Bike-Shed Effect

The tendency for groups to spend disproportionate time on trivial issues while neglecting complex important matters. Named after Parkinson's observation that a committee might spend little time on approving a nuclear plant (too complex for casual opinions) but extensive time debating a bicycle shed's color.

C. Northcote Parkinson (historian who described the phenomenon in 1957); Popularized in software development as "Parkinson's Law of Triviality"

The tendency for groups to spend disproportionate time on trivial issues while neglecting complex important matters. Named after Parkinson's observation that a committee might spend little time on approving a nuclear plant (too complex for casual opinions) but extensive time debating a bicycle shed's color.

32. Bike-Shed Effect

The tendency for groups to spend disproportionate time on trivial issues while neglecting complex important matters. Named after Parkinson's observation that a committee might spend little time on approving a nuclear plant (too complex for casual opinions) but extensive time debating a bicycle shed's color.

C. Northcote Parkinson (historian who described the phenomenon in 1957); Popularized in software development as "Parkinson's Law of Triviality"

The tendency to reject new evidence or knowledge because it contradicts established norms, beliefs, or paradigms. Named after Ignaz Semmelweis, whose hand-washing directive to prevent patient infections was rejected by the medical establishment despite clear evidence.

33. Semmelweis Reflex

The tendency to reject new evidence or knowledge because it contradicts established norms, beliefs, or paradigms. Named after Ignaz Semmelweis, whose hand-washing directive to prevent patient infections was rejected by the medical establishment despite clear evidence.

Named after Ignaz Semmelweis (physician whose hand-washing discovery was rejected in the 1840s); Concept formalized by Robert Anton Wilson

The tendency to reject new evidence or knowledge because it contradicts established norms, beliefs, or paradigms. Named after Ignaz Semmelweis, whose hand-washing directive to prevent patient infections was rejected by the medical establishment despite clear evidence.

33. Semmelweis Reflex

The tendency to reject new evidence or knowledge because it contradicts established norms, beliefs, or paradigms. Named after Ignaz Semmelweis, whose hand-washing directive to prevent patient infections was rejected by the medical establishment despite clear evidence.

Named after Ignaz Semmelweis (physician whose hand-washing discovery was rejected in the 1840s); Concept formalized by Robert Anton Wilson

The tendency to reject new evidence or knowledge because it contradicts established norms, beliefs, or paradigms. Named after Ignaz Semmelweis, whose hand-washing directive to prevent patient infections was rejected by the medical establishment despite clear evidence.

33. Semmelweis Reflex

The tendency to reject new evidence or knowledge because it contradicts established norms, beliefs, or paradigms. Named after Ignaz Semmelweis, whose hand-washing directive to prevent patient infections was rejected by the medical establishment despite clear evidence.

Named after Ignaz Semmelweis (physician whose hand-washing discovery was rejected in the 1840s); Concept formalized by Robert Anton Wilson

The cognitive limitation where people struggle to use familiar objects in novel ways. In a classic experiment, subjects failed to solve a problem requiring them to use a box as a platform rather than a container. This mental block restricts innovation by limiting objects to their conventional purposes.

34. Functional Fixedness

The cognitive limitation where people struggle to use familiar objects in novel ways. In a classic experiment, subjects failed to solve a problem requiring them to use a box as a platform rather than a container. This mental block restricts innovation by limiting objects to their conventional purposes.

Karl Duncker (Gestalt psychologist who identified the bias in 1945 with his "candle problem" experiment)

The cognitive limitation where people struggle to use familiar objects in novel ways. In a classic experiment, subjects failed to solve a problem requiring them to use a box as a platform rather than a container. This mental block restricts innovation by limiting objects to their conventional purposes.

34. Functional Fixedness

The cognitive limitation where people struggle to use familiar objects in novel ways. In a classic experiment, subjects failed to solve a problem requiring them to use a box as a platform rather than a container. This mental block restricts innovation by limiting objects to their conventional purposes.

Karl Duncker (Gestalt psychologist who identified the bias in 1945 with his "candle problem" experiment)

The cognitive limitation where people struggle to use familiar objects in novel ways. In a classic experiment, subjects failed to solve a problem requiring them to use a box as a platform rather than a container. This mental block restricts innovation by limiting objects to their conventional purposes.

34. Functional Fixedness

The cognitive limitation where people struggle to use familiar objects in novel ways. In a classic experiment, subjects failed to solve a problem requiring them to use a box as a platform rather than a container. This mental block restricts innovation by limiting objects to their conventional purposes.

Karl Duncker (Gestalt psychologist who identified the bias in 1945 with his "candle problem" experiment)

The observational bias where people look for answers where it's easiest to search rather than where the solution likely lies. Named after the joke about a drunk looking for lost keys under a streetlight rather than in the dark area where they were actually dropped.

35. The Streetlight Effect

The observational bias where people look for answers where it's easiest to search rather than where the solution likely lies. Named after the joke about a drunk looking for lost keys under a streetlight rather than in the dark area where they were actually dropped.

Based on an old joke, formalized by David H. Freedman in social science research contexts in 2010

The observational bias where people look for answers where it's easiest to search rather than where the solution likely lies. Named after the joke about a drunk looking for lost keys under a streetlight rather than in the dark area where they were actually dropped.

35. The Streetlight Effect

The observational bias where people look for answers where it's easiest to search rather than where the solution likely lies. Named after the joke about a drunk looking for lost keys under a streetlight rather than in the dark area where they were actually dropped.

Based on an old joke, formalized by David H. Freedman in social science research contexts in 2010

The observational bias where people look for answers where it's easiest to search rather than where the solution likely lies. Named after the joke about a drunk looking for lost keys under a streetlight rather than in the dark area where they were actually dropped.

35. The Streetlight Effect

The observational bias where people look for answers where it's easiest to search rather than where the solution likely lies. Named after the joke about a drunk looking for lost keys under a streetlight rather than in the dark area where they were actually dropped.

Based on an old joke, formalized by David H. Freedman in social science research contexts in 2010

The difficulty in interpreting silence in online communities. When a post receives no responses, it could mean: the idea was so obvious it needed no comment, it was so perfect it left nothing to add, it was confusing, it was boring – or simply that nobody saw it.

36. Warnock's Dilemma

The difficulty in interpreting silence in online communities. When a post receives no responses, it could mean: the idea was so obvious it needed no comment, it was so perfect it left nothing to add, it was confusing, it was boring – or simply that nobody saw it.

Bryan Warnock (software developer who described the problem on a Perl mailing list in 2000)

The difficulty in interpreting silence in online communities. When a post receives no responses, it could mean: the idea was so obvious it needed no comment, it was so perfect it left nothing to add, it was confusing, it was boring – or simply that nobody saw it.

36. Warnock's Dilemma

The difficulty in interpreting silence in online communities. When a post receives no responses, it could mean: the idea was so obvious it needed no comment, it was so perfect it left nothing to add, it was confusing, it was boring – or simply that nobody saw it.

Bryan Warnock (software developer who described the problem on a Perl mailing list in 2000)

The difficulty in interpreting silence in online communities. When a post receives no responses, it could mean: the idea was so obvious it needed no comment, it was so perfect it left nothing to add, it was confusing, it was boring – or simply that nobody saw it.

36. Warnock's Dilemma

The difficulty in interpreting silence in online communities. When a post receives no responses, it could mean: the idea was so obvious it needed no comment, it was so perfect it left nothing to add, it was confusing, it was boring – or simply that nobody saw it.

Bryan Warnock (software developer who described the problem on a Perl mailing list in 2000)

The discovery that, contrary to traditional assumptions, high-level reasoning requires relatively little computation compared to low-level sensorimotor skills. In AI development, abstract thinking proved easier to replicate than basic physical coordination or perception.

37. Moravec's Paradox

The discovery that, contrary to traditional assumptions, high-level reasoning requires relatively little computation compared to low-level sensorimotor skills. In AI development, abstract thinking proved easier to replicate than basic physical coordination or perception.

Hans Moravec (AI researcher who articulated it in the 1980s); Also observed by Marvin Minsky and others in robotics

The discovery that, contrary to traditional assumptions, high-level reasoning requires relatively little computation compared to low-level sensorimotor skills. In AI development, abstract thinking proved easier to replicate than basic physical coordination or perception.

37. Moravec's Paradox

The discovery that, contrary to traditional assumptions, high-level reasoning requires relatively little computation compared to low-level sensorimotor skills. In AI development, abstract thinking proved easier to replicate than basic physical coordination or perception.

Hans Moravec (AI researcher who articulated it in the 1980s); Also observed by Marvin Minsky and others in robotics

The discovery that, contrary to traditional assumptions, high-level reasoning requires relatively little computation compared to low-level sensorimotor skills. In AI development, abstract thinking proved easier to replicate than basic physical coordination or perception.

37. Moravec's Paradox

The discovery that, contrary to traditional assumptions, high-level reasoning requires relatively little computation compared to low-level sensorimotor skills. In AI development, abstract thinking proved easier to replicate than basic physical coordination or perception.

Hans Moravec (AI researcher who articulated it in the 1980s); Also observed by Marvin Minsky and others in robotics

The over-reliance on a familiar tool regardless of the task. As Abraham Maslow noted, "If all you have is a hammer, everything looks like a nail." This cognitive bias causes people to force their preferred solution onto problems where it's ill-suited.

38. Law of the Instrument

The over-reliance on a familiar tool regardless of the task. As Abraham Maslow noted, "If all you have is a hammer, everything looks like a nail." This cognitive bias causes people to force their preferred solution onto problems where it's ill-suited.

Abraham Maslow (psychologist who popularized the concept in 1966); variants date back to Abraham Kaplan and earlier

The over-reliance on a familiar tool regardless of the task. As Abraham Maslow noted, "If all you have is a hammer, everything looks like a nail." This cognitive bias causes people to force their preferred solution onto problems where it's ill-suited.

38. Law of the Instrument

The over-reliance on a familiar tool regardless of the task. As Abraham Maslow noted, "If all you have is a hammer, everything looks like a nail." This cognitive bias causes people to force their preferred solution onto problems where it's ill-suited.

Abraham Maslow (psychologist who popularized the concept in 1966); variants date back to Abraham Kaplan and earlier

The over-reliance on a familiar tool regardless of the task. As Abraham Maslow noted, "If all you have is a hammer, everything looks like a nail." This cognitive bias causes people to force their preferred solution onto problems where it's ill-suited.

38. Law of the Instrument

The over-reliance on a familiar tool regardless of the task. As Abraham Maslow noted, "If all you have is a hammer, everything looks like a nail." This cognitive bias causes people to force their preferred solution onto problems where it's ill-suited.

Abraham Maslow (psychologist who popularized the concept in 1966); variants date back to Abraham Kaplan and earlier

The phenomenon where groups collectively decide on actions contrary to the preferences of their individual members. Unlike groupthink (where individuals conform to perceived consensus), in the Abilene Paradox each person mistakenly believes others want a certain decision and supports it to avoid being contrarian.

39. Abilene Paradox

The phenomenon where groups collectively decide on actions contrary to the preferences of their individual members. Unlike groupthink (where individuals conform to perceived consensus), in the Abilene Paradox each person mistakenly believes others want a certain decision and supports it to avoid being contrarian.

Jerry B. Harvey (management expert who described it in 1974 based on a family trip nobody wanted to take)

The phenomenon where groups collectively decide on actions contrary to the preferences of their individual members. Unlike groupthink (where individuals conform to perceived consensus), in the Abilene Paradox each person mistakenly believes others want a certain decision and supports it to avoid being contrarian.

39. Abilene Paradox

The phenomenon where groups collectively decide on actions contrary to the preferences of their individual members. Unlike groupthink (where individuals conform to perceived consensus), in the Abilene Paradox each person mistakenly believes others want a certain decision and supports it to avoid being contrarian.

Jerry B. Harvey (management expert who described it in 1974 based on a family trip nobody wanted to take)

The phenomenon where groups collectively decide on actions contrary to the preferences of their individual members. Unlike groupthink (where individuals conform to perceived consensus), in the Abilene Paradox each person mistakenly believes others want a certain decision and supports it to avoid being contrarian.

39. Abilene Paradox

The phenomenon where groups collectively decide on actions contrary to the preferences of their individual members. Unlike groupthink (where individuals conform to perceived consensus), in the Abilene Paradox each person mistakenly believes others want a certain decision and supports it to avoid being contrarian.

Jerry B. Harvey (management expert who described it in 1974 based on a family trip nobody wanted to take)

The innovative breakthrough that occurs when concepts from different fields, cultures, or domains intersect. Named after the Medici family whose patronage brought together diverse creators in Renaissance Florence, these unexpected combinations generate novel ideas.

40. Medici Effect

The innovative breakthrough that occurs when concepts from different fields, cultures, or domains intersect. Named after the Medici family whose patronage brought together diverse creators in Renaissance Florence, these unexpected combinations generate novel ideas.

Frans Johansson (innovation expert who coined the term in his 2004 book)

The innovative breakthrough that occurs when concepts from different fields, cultures, or domains intersect. Named after the Medici family whose patronage brought together diverse creators in Renaissance Florence, these unexpected combinations generate novel ideas.

40. Medici Effect

The innovative breakthrough that occurs when concepts from different fields, cultures, or domains intersect. Named after the Medici family whose patronage brought together diverse creators in Renaissance Florence, these unexpected combinations generate novel ideas.

Frans Johansson (innovation expert who coined the term in his 2004 book)

The innovative breakthrough that occurs when concepts from different fields, cultures, or domains intersect. Named after the Medici family whose patronage brought together diverse creators in Renaissance Florence, these unexpected combinations generate novel ideas.

40. Medici Effect

The innovative breakthrough that occurs when concepts from different fields, cultures, or domains intersect. Named after the Medici family whose patronage brought together diverse creators in Renaissance Florence, these unexpected combinations generate novel ideas.

Frans Johansson (innovation expert who coined the term in his 2004 book)

The observation that tasks always take longer than expected, even when accounting for this law. Recursive in nature, it highlights our systematic underestimation of completion times, particularly for complex creative or intellectual work.

41. Hofstadter's Law

The observation that tasks always take longer than expected, even when accounting for this law. Recursive in nature, it highlights our systematic underestimation of completion times, particularly for complex creative or intellectual work.

Douglas Hofstadter (cognitive scientist who formulated it in his 1979 book "Gödel, Escher, Bach")

The observation that tasks always take longer than expected, even when accounting for this law. Recursive in nature, it highlights our systematic underestimation of completion times, particularly for complex creative or intellectual work.

41. Hofstadter's Law

The observation that tasks always take longer than expected, even when accounting for this law. Recursive in nature, it highlights our systematic underestimation of completion times, particularly for complex creative or intellectual work.

Douglas Hofstadter (cognitive scientist who formulated it in his 1979 book "Gödel, Escher, Bach")

The observation that tasks always take longer than expected, even when accounting for this law. Recursive in nature, it highlights our systematic underestimation of completion times, particularly for complex creative or intellectual work.

41. Hofstadter's Law

The observation that tasks always take longer than expected, even when accounting for this law. Recursive in nature, it highlights our systematic underestimation of completion times, particularly for complex creative or intellectual work.

Douglas Hofstadter (cognitive scientist who formulated it in his 1979 book "Gödel, Escher, Bach")

The practice of deliberately transferring patterns from one domain to understand or solve problems in another. By identifying structural similarities between disparate systems, one can apply established solutions from a different field.

42. Isomorphic Mapping

The practice of deliberately transferring patterns from one domain to understand or solve problems in another. By identifying structural similarities between disparate systems, one can apply established solutions from a different field.

Douglas Hofstadter (cognitive scientist who explored mapping between domains); Dedre Gentner (psychologist who developed structure-mapping theory)

The practice of deliberately transferring patterns from one domain to understand or solve problems in another. By identifying structural similarities between disparate systems, one can apply established solutions from a different field.

42. Isomorphic Mapping

The practice of deliberately transferring patterns from one domain to understand or solve problems in another. By identifying structural similarities between disparate systems, one can apply established solutions from a different field.

Douglas Hofstadter (cognitive scientist who explored mapping between domains); Dedre Gentner (psychologist who developed structure-mapping theory)

The practice of deliberately transferring patterns from one domain to understand or solve problems in another. By identifying structural similarities between disparate systems, one can apply established solutions from a different field.

42. Isomorphic Mapping

The practice of deliberately transferring patterns from one domain to understand or solve problems in another. By identifying structural similarities between disparate systems, one can apply established solutions from a different field.

Douglas Hofstadter (cognitive scientist who explored mapping between domains); Dedre Gentner (psychologist who developed structure-mapping theory)

The recognition that different organisms inhabit different perceptual worlds based on their sensory capabilities. In design, this means users with different abilities, cultures, or contexts experience products entirely differently – not just having different preferences but literally perceiving different realities.

43. Umwelt Concept

The recognition that different organisms inhabit different perceptual worlds based on their sensory capabilities. In design, this means users with different abilities, cultures, or contexts experience products entirely differently – not just having different preferences but literally perceiving different realities.

Jakob von Uexküll (biologist who developed the concept in 1909); Thomas Nagel (philosopher who explored it in "What Is It Like to Be a Bat?")

The recognition that different organisms inhabit different perceptual worlds based on their sensory capabilities. In design, this means users with different abilities, cultures, or contexts experience products entirely differently – not just having different preferences but literally perceiving different realities.

43. Umwelt Concept

The recognition that different organisms inhabit different perceptual worlds based on their sensory capabilities. In design, this means users with different abilities, cultures, or contexts experience products entirely differently – not just having different preferences but literally perceiving different realities.

Jakob von Uexküll (biologist who developed the concept in 1909); Thomas Nagel (philosopher who explored it in "What Is It Like to Be a Bat?")

The recognition that different organisms inhabit different perceptual worlds based on their sensory capabilities. In design, this means users with different abilities, cultures, or contexts experience products entirely differently – not just having different preferences but literally perceiving different realities.

43. Umwelt Concept

The recognition that different organisms inhabit different perceptual worlds based on their sensory capabilities. In design, this means users with different abilities, cultures, or contexts experience products entirely differently – not just having different preferences but literally perceiving different realities.

Jakob von Uexküll (biologist who developed the concept in 1909); Thomas Nagel (philosopher who explored it in "What Is It Like to Be a Bat?")

The observation that in hierarchical organizations, employees tend to rise to their "level of incompetence." People who perform well get promoted until they reach a position where they no longer excel, then remain stuck there.

44. Peter Principle

The observation that in hierarchical organizations, employees tend to rise to their "level of incompetence." People who perform well get promoted until they reach a position where they no longer excel, then remain stuck there.

Laurence J. Peter & Raymond Hull (described the principle in their 1969 satirical book)

The observation that in hierarchical organizations, employees tend to rise to their "level of incompetence." People who perform well get promoted until they reach a position where they no longer excel, then remain stuck there.

44. Peter Principle

The observation that in hierarchical organizations, employees tend to rise to their "level of incompetence." People who perform well get promoted until they reach a position where they no longer excel, then remain stuck there.

Laurence J. Peter & Raymond Hull (described the principle in their 1969 satirical book)

The observation that in hierarchical organizations, employees tend to rise to their "level of incompetence." People who perform well get promoted until they reach a position where they no longer excel, then remain stuck there.

44. Peter Principle

The observation that in hierarchical organizations, employees tend to rise to their "level of incompetence." People who perform well get promoted until they reach a position where they no longer excel, then remain stuck there.

Laurence J. Peter & Raymond Hull (described the principle in their 1969 satirical book)

The design guideline suggesting that optimal human-centered design should be "Most Advanced Yet Acceptable." Too conventional and users see no value; too radical and users feel alienated. This explains why breakthrough products often combine novel capabilities with familiar interaction patterns.

45. MAYA Principle

The design guideline suggesting that optimal human-centered design should be "Most Advanced Yet Acceptable." Too conventional and users see no value; too radical and users feel alienated. This explains why breakthrough products often combine novel capabilities with familiar interaction patterns.

Raymond Loewy (influential industrial designer who articulated the principle in the 1950s based on his work on iconic designs from locomotives to logos)

The design guideline suggesting that optimal human-centered design should be "Most Advanced Yet Acceptable." Too conventional and users see no value; too radical and users feel alienated. This explains why breakthrough products often combine novel capabilities with familiar interaction patterns.

45. MAYA Principle

The design guideline suggesting that optimal human-centered design should be "Most Advanced Yet Acceptable." Too conventional and users see no value; too radical and users feel alienated. This explains why breakthrough products often combine novel capabilities with familiar interaction patterns.

Raymond Loewy (influential industrial designer who articulated the principle in the 1950s based on his work on iconic designs from locomotives to logos)

The design guideline suggesting that optimal human-centered design should be "Most Advanced Yet Acceptable." Too conventional and users see no value; too radical and users feel alienated. This explains why breakthrough products often combine novel capabilities with familiar interaction patterns.

45. MAYA Principle

The design guideline suggesting that optimal human-centered design should be "Most Advanced Yet Acceptable." Too conventional and users see no value; too radical and users feel alienated. This explains why breakthrough products often combine novel capabilities with familiar interaction patterns.

Raymond Loewy (influential industrial designer who articulated the principle in the 1950s based on his work on iconic designs from locomotives to logos)

The decision-making strategy of accepting a "good enough" solution rather than optimizing for the theoretically best outcome. This approach conserves cognitive resources by setting acceptable thresholds rather than maximizing.

46. Satisficing

The decision-making strategy of accepting a "good enough" solution rather than optimizing for the theoretically best outcome. This approach conserves cognitive resources by setting acceptable thresholds rather than maximizing.

Herbert Simon (economist and cognitive psychologist who introduced the term in 1956, earning him a Nobel Prize)

The decision-making strategy of accepting a "good enough" solution rather than optimizing for the theoretically best outcome. This approach conserves cognitive resources by setting acceptable thresholds rather than maximizing.

46. Satisficing

The decision-making strategy of accepting a "good enough" solution rather than optimizing for the theoretically best outcome. This approach conserves cognitive resources by setting acceptable thresholds rather than maximizing.

Herbert Simon (economist and cognitive psychologist who introduced the term in 1956, earning him a Nobel Prize)

The decision-making strategy of accepting a "good enough" solution rather than optimizing for the theoretically best outcome. This approach conserves cognitive resources by setting acceptable thresholds rather than maximizing.

46. Satisficing

The decision-making strategy of accepting a "good enough" solution rather than optimizing for the theoretically best outcome. This approach conserves cognitive resources by setting acceptable thresholds rather than maximizing.

Herbert Simon (economist and cognitive psychologist who introduced the term in 1956, earning him a Nobel Prize)

The principle that language structures influence or determine thought patterns and worldview. In product design, this insight suggests that terminology, labels, and framing language profoundly impact how users understand and interact with features.

47. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

The principle that language structures influence or determine thought patterns and worldview. In product design, this insight suggests that terminology, labels, and framing language profoundly impact how users understand and interact with features.

Edward Sapir & Benjamin Lee Whorf (linguists who developed the hypothesis in the early 20th century)

The principle that language structures influence or determine thought patterns and worldview. In product design, this insight suggests that terminology, labels, and framing language profoundly impact how users understand and interact with features.

47. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

The principle that language structures influence or determine thought patterns and worldview. In product design, this insight suggests that terminology, labels, and framing language profoundly impact how users understand and interact with features.

Edward Sapir & Benjamin Lee Whorf (linguists who developed the hypothesis in the early 20th century)

The principle that language structures influence or determine thought patterns and worldview. In product design, this insight suggests that terminology, labels, and framing language profoundly impact how users understand and interact with features.

47. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

The principle that language structures influence or determine thought patterns and worldview. In product design, this insight suggests that terminology, labels, and framing language profoundly impact how users understand and interact with features.

Edward Sapir & Benjamin Lee Whorf (linguists who developed the hypothesis in the early 20th century)

The engineering principle that attempting to optimize systems too early in the development process leads to wasted effort and suboptimal results. This principle applies beyond coding to product development generally.

48. Premature Optimization

The engineering principle that attempting to optimize systems too early in the development process leads to wasted effort and suboptimal results. This principle applies beyond coding to product development generally.

Donald Knuth (computer scientist who articulated the warning in 1974); widely applied in software engineering and beyond

The engineering principle that attempting to optimize systems too early in the development process leads to wasted effort and suboptimal results. This principle applies beyond coding to product development generally.

48. Premature Optimization

The engineering principle that attempting to optimize systems too early in the development process leads to wasted effort and suboptimal results. This principle applies beyond coding to product development generally.

Donald Knuth (computer scientist who articulated the warning in 1974); widely applied in software engineering and beyond

The engineering principle that attempting to optimize systems too early in the development process leads to wasted effort and suboptimal results. This principle applies beyond coding to product development generally.

48. Premature Optimization

The engineering principle that attempting to optimize systems too early in the development process leads to wasted effort and suboptimal results. This principle applies beyond coding to product development generally.

Donald Knuth (computer scientist who articulated the warning in 1974); widely applied in software engineering and beyond

The phenomenon where a door is designed in a way that gives the wrong usability cues, causing people to push when they should pull or vice versa. This principle extends beyond doors to any interface: users shouldn't have to think about how to use a product.

49. Norman Door Problem

The phenomenon where a door is designed in a way that gives the wrong usability cues, causing people to push when they should pull or vice versa. This principle extends beyond doors to any interface: users shouldn't have to think about how to use a product.

Don Norman (cognitive scientist and usability engineer who popularized the concept in "The Design of Everyday Things," 1988)

The phenomenon where a door is designed in a way that gives the wrong usability cues, causing people to push when they should pull or vice versa. This principle extends beyond doors to any interface: users shouldn't have to think about how to use a product.

49. Norman Door Problem

The phenomenon where a door is designed in a way that gives the wrong usability cues, causing people to push when they should pull or vice versa. This principle extends beyond doors to any interface: users shouldn't have to think about how to use a product.

Don Norman (cognitive scientist and usability engineer who popularized the concept in "The Design of Everyday Things," 1988)

The phenomenon where a door is designed in a way that gives the wrong usability cues, causing people to push when they should pull or vice versa. This principle extends beyond doors to any interface: users shouldn't have to think about how to use a product.

49. Norman Door Problem

The phenomenon where a door is designed in a way that gives the wrong usability cues, causing people to push when they should pull or vice versa. This principle extends beyond doors to any interface: users shouldn't have to think about how to use a product.

Don Norman (cognitive scientist and usability engineer who popularized the concept in "The Design of Everyday Things," 1988)

The principle that "the best way to get the right answer on the Internet is not to ask a question; it's to post the wrong answer." This recognizes that people are more motivated to correct errors than to answer questions.

50. Cunningham's Law

The principle that "the best way to get the right answer on the Internet is not to ask a question; it's to post the wrong answer." This recognizes that people are more motivated to correct errors than to answer questions.

Ward Cunningham (programmer who noted the pattern based on his experience with collaborative editing)

The principle that "the best way to get the right answer on the Internet is not to ask a question; it's to post the wrong answer." This recognizes that people are more motivated to correct errors than to answer questions.

50. Cunningham's Law

The principle that "the best way to get the right answer on the Internet is not to ask a question; it's to post the wrong answer." This recognizes that people are more motivated to correct errors than to answer questions.

Ward Cunningham (programmer who noted the pattern based on his experience with collaborative editing)

The principle that "the best way to get the right answer on the Internet is not to ask a question; it's to post the wrong answer." This recognizes that people are more motivated to correct errors than to answer questions.

50. Cunningham's Law

The principle that "the best way to get the right answer on the Internet is not to ask a question; it's to post the wrong answer." This recognizes that people are more motivated to correct errors than to answer questions.

Ward Cunningham (programmer who noted the pattern based on his experience with collaborative editing)

Each of these mental models offers a lens to dissect problems and make better decisions. By internalizing this diverse toolkit – from cognitive biases like the Zeigarnik Effect to economic principles like Jevons Paradox, from creative heuristics like the Vacation Principle to structured frameworks like Polarity Mapping – we can approach challenges with more clarity, creativity, and rigor. The conceptual metaphors provided for each model (like "Future Rearview Mirror" for the Regret Minimization Framework or "Problem Preservation" for the Shirky Principle) help communicate and remember these powerful ideas, making them not just intellectual tools but also shared narratives for team learning and leadership.


Sources: The explanations and contributors draw on a range of literature spanning psychology, economics, design, and systems thinking. These models have been developed by diverse thinkers like Jeff Bezos, Herbert Simon, Don Norman, and Nassim Taleb, among many others noted in the document. Each model provides a unique way to cut through complexity – whether by simplifying, looking at opposites, considering human biases, or structuring thinking – and collectively they form a robust "latticework" of mental models for better problem-solving and decision-making.

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